L2 speakers have even been reported to produce sounds that do not exist in the target language: For instance, L1 English beginner learners of L2 Spanish may produce a, which does not exist in Spanish, instead of a that is represented with the letter (Zampini, 1994). The produced sound may be an allophone of the target sound, as, for instance, when L1 Spanish speakers of L2 American English produce a or a instead of a flap that is represented orthographically with the letters (Vokic, 2011).
For instance, speakers of L2 German have been reported to pronounce a word-final as in their L2 German, although in that position represents the voiceless (Young-Scholten, 2002). Although orthographic effects can lead to sound additions, deletions, and substitutions (Bassetti, 2008), the most common effects are sound substitutions, which occur when L2 speakers substitute a target sound with another sound because of the sound's spelling. There is ample evidence that the orthographic forms of a language affect speech production and perception in L2 users (see reviews in Bassetti, 2008 Bassetti et al., 2015). Background Literature Effects of Orthographic Forms on Second Language Speech Production We first discuss the effects of orthography on L2 production and L2 awareness, and then present two experiments in which we investigated the effects of the number of letters in the spelling of an English sound on speech production and awareness among first-language (L1) Italian speakers of L2 English, and speaker-level predictors of these orthographic effects on L2 phonology. In the present study we aimed to increase the understanding of orthographic effects on L2 phonology by linking effects on speech production and on metalinguistic awareness, and by providing a first systematic investigation of how speaker-level variables may influence the magnitude of the effects of orthography on L2 phonology. Furthermore, given the small-scale nature of the majority of studies in this domain, it has not been possible to investigate systematically factors that may predict the effect of orthography on L2 speech production, such as proficiency, short-term memory, and length of residence in a target language environment, among others. Also, no studies that we know of link effects on production with effects on metalinguistic awareness, which would provide evidence that orthography affects L2 speakers’ phonological representations. However, most research on orthographic effects on L2 phonology consists of small-scale studies of the effects of a specific orthographic form on the production of a specific sound (see below). Recent research has shown that the orthographic forms of the second language (L2)-the way the words are spelled-can affect how L2 speakers produce and perceive L2 sounds (Bassetti, Escudero, & Hayes-Harb, 2015). Finally, the results show that proficiency predicts orthographic effects, and that orthographic effect predictors vary in naturalistic and instructed contexts. Results were strengthened by combining experimental and qualitative data in the study of orthographic effects. This provides evidence for a direct link between the effects of the same orthographic phenomenon on speech production and on metalinguistic awareness. L1 Italian speakers established a long–short contrast and used consonant and vowel length contrastively in their L2 English, both in production and in an awareness task. To test this, we asked 260 speakers of English-first-language (L1) English speakers, L1 Italian and L2 English sequential bilinguals, and L1 Italian learners of L2 English-to perform word repetition tasks and rhyme judgment tasks for word pairs containing the same consonant or vowel spelled with a letter or a digraph. Orthographic forms (spellings) can affect pronunciation in a second language (L2) however, it is not known whether the same orthographic form can affect both L2 pronunciation and metalinguistic awareness.
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